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These disasters triggered a wave of defection among Roman allies, with the rebellions of the Samnites, Oscans, Lucanians, and Greek cities of Southern Italy. During this time, Hannibal had been completing his preparations to cross the Rhne. He thereafter was replaced as co-consul by Publius Valerius Publicola. The Republic's most notable religious suppression was that of the Bacchanalia, a widespread, unofficial, enthusiastic cult to the Greek wine-god Bacchus. The events recorded in ancient accounts and their relationship to the Alpine geography has been a matter of historiographical dispute since the decades following the Second Punic War. The historian Phillip Sabin refers to Livy's "military ignorance". Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Working in relays, the army set about this labour-intensive task under the eyes of Hannibal, who was constantly encouraging them. Marching west from Carthage[13] towards the Pillars of Hercules,[14] where his army crossed the strait and proceeded to subdue the peninsula, in the course of nine years[11][12][14] Hamilcar conquered the south-eastern portion of the peninsula. [350], For most Romans, even the simplest, cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. They plundered the surroundings until Hiero II, the new tyrant of Syracuse, defeated them (in either 269 or 265). In the spring of 216BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. [123], In this context, Tiberius Gracchus was elected plebeian tribune in 133 BC. The first notices that nobody actively sought the destruction of the republic in fact, politicians clung ever harder to the traditional political system in its waning years, but pins blame on the Romans' inability to conceive of alternatives to the traditional republican system. "The rise of Pompey". "[50] At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome's allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. He had some scouts give him reports concerning this mountain chain, and he received reports of the difficulties to be encountered there from the Gauls themselves. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (i.e., soldiers). The Republic's greatest strategic rival was Carthage, against which it waged three wars. [81][82] In 218 BC the two armies established camps about 8 kilometres (5mi) from each other on opposite sides of the River Trebia. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule. It also elected censors. As they were dispersed between a large number of settlements and many were burdened with plunder and looted food, the Carthaginians were easily routed and fled back to their camp. See Stone. Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of the Romans and drew them into a trap by using an envelopment tactic. In 212 BC, Marcellus conquered Syracuse and the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian army in Sicily in 211210 BC. [citation needed], The Jugurthine War of 111104 was fought between Rome and the North African kingdom of Numidia (in current-day Algeria and Tunisia). However, despite fighting for 16 years, Hannibal wasn't able to conquer the city of Rome. Although they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the decline of their empire, as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east (the Parthians) and the west (the Greeks). [56][59] The time from Ostia to Massalia was 5 days. [132] This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support. [158] Initial reactions were negative across the peninsula, but after winning a number of victories he was able to overcome resistance and capture the city. Kocaeli in Turkey has a cenotaph built in Hannibal's memory. Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry. As he was relying upon contingents of forces coming to him in Italy via the land route on which he was about to head out, he must take and conquer this country. Most had little direct political influence over the Senate's decisions or the laws it passed, including the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of the consular system. [104] The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great's former empire. The Jugurthine War constituted the final Roman pacification of northern Africa,[141][failed verification] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. After the siege, Hannibal sold all the inhabitants as slaves, and distributed the proceeds from those sales to his soldiers. A Carthaginian cavalryman of Hannibal's army, as depicted in 1891. During these periods when armies were encamped in close proximity it was common for their light forces to skirmish with each other, attempting to gather information on each other's forces and achieve minor, morale-raising victories. [106] Many of the Roman allied heavy infantry on each flank also turned to their flanks to face this new threat; this inevitably took much of the impetus out of their parent formation's push against the African and Iberian infantry to their fronts. [202] Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. [195][196] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided heavy confrontation with him, instead waging a war of attrition. Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", King Numa Pompilius was also said to have consorted with the nymph. "The Carthaginians in Spain". His well-planned strategies allowed him to conquer and ally with several Italian cities that were previously allied to Rome. [e][f] His tribal reforms were nonetheless rescinded by the next censors, Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus, his political enemies. Two of their bills attacked patricians' economic supremacy by creating legal protection against indebtedness and forbidding excessive use of public land, as the Ager publicus was monopolised by large landowners. One check on a magistrate's power was called Collega (collegiality). Antiochus met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome's terms, and Hannibal fled again, making a stop in the Kingdom of Armenia. The Roman army in Massalia had, in fact, continued to Iberia under Publius's brother, Gnaeus; only Publius had returned. The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isre and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass. The victory, while not decisive enough to end Hannibal's fighting potential, was a boost to Roman morale. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. "The transformation of the republic". [39] The commission kept its peace, but brought news to Rome that Hannibal was prepared and was going to strike soon. [111] Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. [123] The Carthaginians then cut off the Roman army from Rome, which provoked Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Romulus was said to have pitched his augural tent atop the Palatine. [114] According to Paul Erdkamp, the Romans lost 20,000 killed during the battle, half of their force; this excludes those captured. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.[194]. Julius Caesar assembled a fleet to cross the English Channel and invade Britannia. [98] In addition, the Italian side of the Alps is much steeper;[98] many men lost their footing down this side of the Alps and died. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons upon his death. However, the commission was not fooled and knew that war was in the air. [45][46] Hannibal left his brother Hasdrubal Barca in charge of Carthaginian interests in Iberia. This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia but changed sides in 206BC with the promise of land, and due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally. This overhang was an excellent place from which to attack an enemy while it was marching in column through the pass. But with the loss of Tarentum in 209BC and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost lost. "[64][63], Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity and suspicious that Hannibal had been in contact with Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, sent a delegation to Carthage alleging that Hannibal was helping an enemy of Rome. [92] After his defeat, Carthage ordered Hasdrubal to reinforce his brother in Italy. The leading Carthaginian general, Hannibal, responded by leading a large army out of Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), through Gaul, across the Alps and into Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy). By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of supply. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law that allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and later all consuls and tribunes. Hannibal's Numidian cavalry carried on working on the road, taking three more days to fix it sufficiently to allow the elephants to cross. His name also appears in that of a private television channel, Hannibal TV. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men. [82] This plan was thwarted by Hannibal's bold move to Italy. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their dictator. [52], Pyrrhus and his army of 25,500 men (with 20 war elephants) landed in Italy in 280; he was immediately named strategos autokrator by the Tarentines. [172] They also shepherded legislation to settle the contentious matter of jury reform. It then embarked on a long series of difficult conquests, after having notably defeated Philip V and Perseus of Macedon, Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, the Lusitanian Viriathus, the Numidian Jugurtha, the Pontic king Mithridates VI, the Gaul Vercingetorix, and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. During Sulla's civil war, Cn. A white avalanche cascades down the mountain to the right. [citation needed], While Rome had been idle and leaving her allies in Catalonia to their fate at the hands of the Carthaginians, the Massaliots, allies of the Romans, were busy rousing the tribes on the eastern bank of the Rhne against the Carthaginians. Hamilcar nonetheless died against the Oretani in 228; his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair the founder of Carthago Nova and his three sons Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago, succeeded him. [citation needed] They also invented a new device, the corvus, a grappling engine which enabled a crew to board on an enemy ship. Never was one and the same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command[. Girls generally received instruction[366] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. In 216 BC Hannibal moved to southern Italy and inflicted the disastrous defeat of the Battle of Cannae on the Romans, the last of what the modern historian Toni aco del Hoyo describes as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war. [170] After the slaves were defeated by Crassus and then Pompey, who was returning to Rome from Spain, they bickered over who deserved credit. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. 1,200 talents was approximately 30,000kg (30 long tons) of silver. [65], He journeyed first to Tyre, the mother city of Carthage, and then to Antioch, before he finally reached Ephesus, where he was honourably received by Antiochus. [309] In the early Republic the patricians, as "fathers" to the Roman people, claimed the right of seniority to lead and control the state's relationship with the divine. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Mahaney, W.C., et al., 2009. Carthage was an oligarchy at the time, dominated by the Barcids. Publius Cornelius Scipio was the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal (he was also the father of Scipio Africanus). His attack on Apollonia started the First Macedonian War. The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. On 1 January 49, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. Hasdrubal was defeated by Scipio at the Battle of Baecula but managed to retreat with two-thirds of his army intact. He marched on Rome to force the recall of the Roman armies. This eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the combat area. The final defeat of Mark Antony alongside his ally and lover Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian as Augustus in 27 BC which effectively made him the first Roman emperor thus ending the Republic. There is even an account of him at a very young age (9 years old) begging his father to take him to an overseas war. The campaign was conducted over the course of two months, and was incredibly costly. to the near destruction of Napoleon 's Polybius reports severe losses on Hannibal's part. The cult organisation was ferociously suppressed, and its deity was absorbed within the official cult to Rome's own wine-god, Liber. He had hidden his troops in the hills surrounding the lake and attacked Flaminius when he was cornered on the shore. [152], Further civil conflict emerged, starting in 88. The Alps rose as a result of the pressure of the African plate as it moved north against the stable Eurasian landmass; the northward direction of this movement made the Italian side of the Alps considerably steeper. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edition (19101911), praises Hannibal in these words: As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. Recognising the Carthaginians as the dominant force in Cisalpine Gaul, Gallic recruits flocked to them and their army grew to 60,000. Turner sketched out the foreground figures as early as 1804, and had observed an impressive storm from Farnley Hall, the house of Walter Fawkes in Yorkshire, in 1810; making notes on the back of a letter, he remarked to Fawkes' son Hawkesworth that its like would be seen again in two years, and it would be called "Hannibal crossing the Alps". For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. In, Cornell, TJ (1989c). [144] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae, Marius led the Roman armies which virtually annihilated both tribes, ending the threat. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 and 49. [9], The Carthaginian Barcine party was interested in conquering Iberia, a land whose variety of natural resources would fill its coffers with sorely needed revenue[10] and replace the riches of Sicily that, following the end of the First Punic War, were now flowing into Roman coffers. In 275, Pyrrhus left the island before he had to face a full-scale rebellion. [153] Marius, who had escaped into exile, returned, and with L. Cornelius Cinna, took control of the city. [citation needed], Views on the structural causes of the Republic's collapse differ. He soon showed outstanding skills as a commander, winning a series of battles with ingenious tactics. [94] This was meant to divide Hannibal's troops and supplies and make it difficult for his army to organize a counter-attack, but Hannibal, having anticipated deceit by the Centrones, had arranged his army with elephants, cavalry and baggage in front, while his hoplites followed in the rear. According to some, Libyssa was sited at Gebze (between Bursa and skudar), but W. M. Leake,[86] identifying Gebze with ancient Dakibyza, placed it further west. [64][65] The Carthaginian detachment chopped down trees, lashing the logs together with reliable ropes they had brought with them from the army's stores. As long as Hannibal had no ships to keep himself abreast of the exact movements of the Romans, he wanted to be present in person in case the Romans should make a landing in an attempt to attack his army on its ascent or descent through the Pyrenees. These consuls were elected to office for a term of one year, each was capable of acting as a "check" on his colleague (if necessary) through the power of veto that the former kings had held. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of Rome's greatest enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,[239] to win early battles but lose the war. On the flat area between the Aventine and Palatine was the Circus Maximus, which hosted chariot races and religious games. In effect, Carthage was condemned to be a minor power, while Rome recovered from a desperate situation to dominate the western Mediterranean. The first one was on the banks of the Trebia in December 218, where he defeated the other consul Ti. Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps is an oil on canvas painting by J. M. W. Turner, first exhibited in 1812. A form of limited, theoretically voluntary slavery (debt bondage, or nexum) allowed wealthy creditors to negotiate payment of debt through bonded service. [61] His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, which placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy. [42], Hannibal could not achieve the ends that he had hoped for, and in the end he sent news to Carthage (where the peace party, his political enemies, were in power)[43] to the effect that the Saguntines were aggressively handling one of their subject tribes, the Torboletes,[39] and encamped in front of Saguntum to besiege it without awaiting any reply from Carthage. Rome then besieged the last Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily, Lilybaeum and Drepana, but these cities were impregnable by land. Cinna took control of the state: his policies are unclear and the record is muddled by Sulla's eventual victory. [285], With the introduction of aqueducts (from 312), suburban market-farms could be supplied with run-off or waste aqueduct water. This law strongly increased the power of the Senate, which was by now protected from the influence of the consuls and became the central organ of government. [66] The consul proposed attacking Hannibal's overextended and vulnerable lines of communications and supply. [107], Military academies all over the world continue to study Hannibal's exploits, especially his victory at Cannae.[108]. This famous Latin phrase became a common expression that is often still used when a client arrives through the door or when one is faced with calamity. In 220BC, he had begun to communicate intimately with the Padane Gauls (called the "Padane Gauls" because the Po in this era was called the "Padus" by the Romans), and these embassies brought with them offers of money, food and guides to the Carthaginian.[36]. [105] Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.[106]. By the following year, Rome had annexed most Samnite territory and began to establish colonies there; but in 298 the Samnites rebelled, and defeated a Roman army, in a Third Samnite War. Polybius gives a total of 16,000 Romans, Livy 18,000. Rome's armies had a formidable reputation; but Rome also "produced [its] share of incompetents"[238] and catastrophic defeats. 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